Girls' Schooling in the Long Eighteenth Century
Edward Francis Burney’s watercolour painting, “An Elegant Establishment for Young Ladies”, is a caricature meant to satirize women’s education during the eighteenth century. The illustration depicts a finishing school. These schools were established to teach young women various social skills required to attract a husband. Burney’s painting portrays women engaging in various absurd activities intended to impress men, such as having their bodies measured and being stretched to elongate their necks. These portrayals of women, along with others shown fainting and eloping, are an attempt to attack the kind of schooling available to women during the eighteenth century. Although women’s access to a formal education started to grow during the eighteenth century as many women began entering into the public sphere as teachers, the majority of women’s education focused on lessons in music, dance, needlework, and dress. Some began criticizing the lack of education available to women, such as Elizabeth Appleton who argued in her book, Private Education; or, A practical plan for the studies of young ladies, that women’s education must be broadened to include subjects such as reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, and foreign languages. It seems that Appleton dedicated her life to improving women’s education, as she established a girls’ school in Upper Portland Place, London, in 1822. Despite some progress towards improving women’s education, access to the sort of education that Appleton campaigned for was very much limited. Families with wealth and status could hire private governesses to educate their daughters or send them to either boarding schools or day schools, similar to the one that Elizabeth Appleton established in London. My research essay draws on chapter five in Barker and Chalus’ book, Gender in Eighteenth Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities, to provide some historical information about girls’ schools during the eighteenth century. Since there is little information available on Elizabeth Appleton’s school, I intend to use this chapter to draw some conclusions related to her school and show how girls’ access to education was very much limited by social class and status.
In chapter five, “Women teachers and the expansion of girls’ schooling in England c.1760-1820” of Barker and Chalus’ book Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities, Susan Skedd offers some information on the development of girls’ schools. According to Skedd, commercial schools were established in the early seventeenth century. Some of these schools were organized for boys and some for girls (Skedd 101). The commercial schools established for girls can be considered a significant turning point in women’s education, as they were some of the first institutions established for girls that offered an “extensive school education as an alternative to private education in the home” (101). For the first time, girls had the opportunity to learn a variety of subjects such as “reading, writing, and arithmetic” (101). The first private schools for girls were established in London during the early seventeenth century (104). Before Elizabeth Appleton established her school for girls in 1822, there were a few other boarding schools that also gained popularity during the late seventeenth century. For example, Hannah More, a memorable Bluestocking member, and her sister, Martha More established a school in Bristol in 1757 (113). Others include Misses Lee’s school in Bath and Misses Stephenson’s school in London (113). At these boarding schools, tutors would visit students where they would teach lessons most commonly in subjects such as “French, dancing, music and drawing” (120). Although unspecified whether these boarding schools were the finishing schools being satirized in Burney’s painting, the material being taught was relatively similar to the lessons taught in finishing schools. Therefore, it is likely that the boarding schools established during the late seventeenth century were centered around lessons that would teach women social etiquettes to acquire a husband. Education was largely separated by gender. Men were taught subjects such as arithmetic, science, and astronomy (125). Even as women’s education broadened, they were generally taught subjects in arts and language. Girls often confronted challenges accessing lessons in subjects such as science and arithmetic due to the widespread belief that girls should be “taught by their own sex” (120). However, women teachers were able to broaden “the basic school curriculum” (121) that consisted of reading and needlework to “include lessons in grammar and literature, both English and French, history, chronology, geography and the globes” (121) by obtaining a masters in these subjects.
Much of the success and popularity of girls’ schools during the eighteenth century is owed to the expansion of advertising. In chapter five of Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities, Skedd was able to gather information about girls’ schooling by referring to records of advertisements of schools from England’s provincial newspaper, Jackson’s Oxford Journal. Advertising played a significant role in allowing girls’ schools to gain popularity. According to Skedd, “placing an advertisement in a London or provincial newspaper was a popular and effective method of promoting a school” (107). Figure 2 is an advertisement that indicates the location of Elizabeth Appleton’s school. Figure 3 contains another advertisement, also likely for Appleton’s school as it mentions the same location from figure three. This advertisement clearly promotes the education received by girls at her school as it mentions that “strict attention is paid to their moral and religious instruction”. Aside from the subjects that were generally taught in schools as indicated in Skedd’s chapter of Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities, this advertisement reveals that religious and moral instruction was also likely the main component of girls’ education. The advertisement in figure 4 is of an unnamed girls’ school but provides detail of cost and curriculum. The advertisement reads that boarding for students costs fifty guineas per year. The advertisement further outlines various subjects being taught at the school: English, French, geography, history, writing, arithmetic, music and dancing. Although the school advertised in figure four may not be identical to the cost and curriculum at Elizabeth Appleton’s school but can provide an idea of how her school was organized.
Chapter five of Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities also presents some details related to the location of girls’ schools. Figure 6 is a table from Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities that shows the number of educational establishments in both rural and urban areas. The numbers shown in the table, however, are not fully accurate as they are merely based on the schools mentioned in advertisements from Jackson’s Oxford Journal (Skedd 104). As mentioned by Skedd, the first private schools were established in London, “primarily to educate daughters of City merchants and lawyers” (104). Locations in the city were primarily based on convenience, as many families travelled to London during peak seasons, they were able to send their daughters to schools to “experience a metropolitan education” (104). Skedd also indicates that “spa towns” (105) and “fashionable resorts” (105) were other locations common for day schools and boarding schools as they were accessible to seasonal travellers who could afford to “indulge in a polite education for their daughters” (105). Elizabeth Appleton’s school was located in Upper Portland Place, a street in the Marylebone district of central London. This area of London was inhabited by the upper classes. Elizabeth Appleton’s school was located next to the homes of a duchess and a General (Chubb). Appleton’s decision to run her school out of a house in an affluent urban neighbourhood was likely an intentional choice to procure students whose parents wished to send them to the city to be schooled based on convenience. Parents who sent their daughters to Appleton's school likely lived or worked in London, or as mentioned by Skedd, travelled to London during peak season. Despite the convenience of establishing schools in London, figure five indicates that there were more schools established in rural areas. Skedd indicates that schools located in the country were likely preferred by parents due to advertisements that promoted “healthy properties of the air [and] the spaciousness of the school-house” (106). Many parents believed that rural areas were healthier, and therefore, would offer a better education for their daughters.
Elizabeth Appleton’s memoir, Jehovah Jireh, features extracts from her diaries in the 1830s (Chubb). Appleton’s book, Jehovah Jireh, was published a year after her death in 1849. Her diary extracts had been collected by an unnamed physician who edited her book and had it published under the pseudonym ‘Mizpah’ (Chalus). In these extracts, Appleton mentions three names of her pupils: Marian Crofton, Sophy Musters, and Lady Georgiana Beauclerk. Though there is very little information on Marian Crofton, she was the daughter of Captain Edward Lowther Crofton and his wife Mary Leader (Chubb). Marian Crofton’s mother, Mary Leader, was the daughter of William Leader. William Leader was born in 1767 and died in 1828 and was a British Member of Parliament for Camelford and Winchelsea (“William Leader”). His son and Mary Leader’s brother, John Temple Leader, was also an English politician (“John Temple Leader”). When his father died in 1826, John Leader inherited his wealth (“John Temple Leader”). Based on Marian Crofton’s family history, it is evident that she was born into a family with riches and of high social status. Sophy Musters, who is likely to be Sophia Caroline Musters, was born in 1811 and died in 1894. The Musters were a well-respected Nottinghamshire family (“The Chaworth-Musters Family: A Brief History.”). Her father was John ‘Jack’ Musters, the heir to the Musters estate at Colwick, Sneinton and West Bridgford (“Biography of John Musters (1777-1849) and Mary Ann Musters (1786-1832”). The third pupil mentioned in her book, Lady Georgiana Beauclerk, was born in 1809 and died in 1880. She was the eighth child of Wiliam Beauclerk, the 8th Duke of St. Albans and her mother was Maria Beauclerk, the Duchess of St. Albans (“William Beauclerk, 8th Duke of St Albans.”). Based on the social class and status of Appleton’s three pupils, it can be assumed that those who had access to these schools were generally daughters of very wealthy families. By consequence, women of lower social status would not have received an education similar to the girls who could access these schools, or perhaps not receive an education at all.
As shown in Edward Francis Burney’s painting, women’s education during the eighteenth century focused primarily on teaching female accomplishments that could attract a husband, such as sewing, embroidery, painting, music, and dancing. At the same time, criticisms of female education were emerging. Satirical elements of Burney’s painting from 1805 highlights the absurdity and superficiality of this kind of education. Others, like Elizabeth Appleton, devoted their lives to improving girls’ education. My essay sets out to examine girls’ schooling during the eighteenth century by drawing on a chapter in Gender in Eighteenth Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities. In doing so, I was able to explore some information relevant to Appleton’s school by examining the history of girls’ schools, advertising of schools, the location of schools, and three of her pupils. As evidenced throughout this examination, girls’ access to schooling was still largely restricted by social status and class. However, the eighteenth century can be considered a period of momentous transformation in the expansion of girls’ schools. Despite the significance of this period in relation to women’s education, it seems to be a topic that is undervalued due to the lack of research and information available on girls’ schools. Therefore, I hope that my research essay serves to contribute to the gap in information related to girls’ schooling.
Note: Information related to Elizabeth Appleton's pupils and figures 3 and 4 were accessed via email correspondence with Sarah Chubb.
Works Cited
“An Elegant Establishment for Young Ladies: Burney, Edward Francis: V&A Explore the Collections.” Victoria and Albert Museum: Explore the Collections, collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O15007/an-elegant-establishment-for-young-watercolour-burney-edward-francis/.
Barker, & Chalus, E. (1997). Gender in Eighteenth-Century England. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842523
“Biography of John Musters (1777-1849) and Mary Ann Musters (1786-1832).” Biography of John Musters (1777-1849) and Mary Ann Musters (1786-1832) - The University of Nottingham, www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/chaworth-mustersofannesley/biographies/biographyofjohnmusters(1777-1849)andmaryannmusters(1786-1832).aspx.
Chalus, E.H. “Appleton [Married Name Lachlan], Elizabeth (C.1790–1849), Educationist and Author.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press, 23 Sept. 2004) “John Temple Leader.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 20 July 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Temple_Leader.
Chubb, Sarah. “An Update on Elizabeth Appleton for Women's History Month.” Derbyshire Record Office, 16 Feb. 2021, https://recordoffice.wordpress.com/2020/03/31/an-update-on-elizabeth-appleton-for-womens-history-month/.
Chubb, Sarah. “Miss Elizabeth Appleton – an Independent Regency Woman.” Derbyshire Record Office, 22 July 2017, https://recordoffice.wordpress.com/2017/07/24/miss-elizabeth-appleton-an-independent-regency-woman/.
“Elizabeth Lachlan.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 29 May 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Lachlan.
“The Chaworth-Musters Family: A Brief History.” The Chaworth-Musters Family: a Brief History - The University of Nottingham, www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/chaworth-mustersofannesley/chaworth-mustersfamilyhistory.aspx.
“William Beauclerk, 8th Duke of St Albans.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Sept. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Beauclerk,_8th_Duke_of_St_Albans.
“William Leader.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 8 Sept. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Leader.
